Stoicism, an ancient Greek philosophy founded in the early 3rd century BCE, has profoundly influenced both ancient and modern thought. It emphasizes virtue, wisdom, and the development of self-control and fortitude as a means to overcome destructive emotions. The philosophy was established in Athens by Zeno of Citium and has been perpetuated through the writings and teachings of various notable figures, including Marcus Aurelius, Seneca, Epictetus, and Musonius Rufus. This article explores the key figures in Stoicism, their significant contributions, and the major historical events during their times, along with a timeline of the major contributors to Stoicism from its inception to the present day.

Zeno of Citium (c. 334–262 BCE)

Life and Major Events: Zeno of Citium, the founder of Stoicism, was born in Citium (modern-day Larnaca, Cyprus). Initially a wealthy merchant, Zeno's journey into philosophy began after he survived a shipwreck and arrived in Athens. Inspired by the teachings of Socrates and the Cynics, particularly Crates of Thebes, Zeno started developing his own philosophical ideas.

Notable Writings: Zeno's primary contributions include:

• "The Republic": A work that outlines his vision of an ideal state governed by rational principles.

• "Ethics": A foundational text on Stoic moral theory.

Though none of Zeno's original works have survived, his ideas were preserved through the writings of later Stoic philosophers.

Cleanthes (c. 330–230 BCE)

Life and Major Events: Cleanthes succeeded Zeno as the head of the Stoic school. Born in Assos in Asia Minor, Cleanthes initially worked as a boxer before studying philosophy under Zeno.

Notable Writings:

• "Hymn to Zeus": Cleanthes' most famous work, a poetic expression of Stoic theology, emphasizing the unity and rationality of the cosmos.

• "On Pleasure": A treatise that contrasts Stoic views with those of hedonistic philosophies.

Cleanthes played a crucial role in preserving and expanding Zeno's teachings.

Chrysippus (c. 279–206 BCE)

Life and Major Events: Chrysippus of Soli, the third head of the Stoic school, is often considered the co-founder of Stoicism due to his extensive contributions. He was instrumental in systematizing and defending Stoic doctrines against rival schools of thought.

Notable Writings: Chrysippus is said to have written over 700 works, including:

• "On Logic": Explored the principles of Stoic logic and epistemology.

• "On Nature": Addressed Stoic physics and the nature of the universe.

• "On Ethics": Discussed Stoic moral philosophy.

Chrysippus' prolific output ensured the survival and dissemination of Stoic philosophy.

Musonius Rufus (c. 25–95 CE)

Life and Major Events: Gaius Musonius Rufus was born in Volsinii, Etruriaa (modern day Lazio, Italy). As a Stoic philosopher, he was known for his practical approach to Stoicism. He taught philosophy in Rome during the reign of Nero and so was sent into exile in 65 AD, returning to Rome only under Galba. He influenced several notable figures, including Epictetus.

Notable Writings: Musonius Rufus' teachings were compiled in:

• "Lectures and Fragments": These works cover a range of topics, including ethics, education, and the role of women in society.

• "That One Should Disdain Hardships: The Teachings of a Roman Stoic": A collection of lectures on Stoicism. It emphasises the importance of self-discipline, virtue, and the rejection of worldly pleasures to achieve true happiness.

Musonius emphasised Stoic virtues in everyday life, advocating for the importance of philosophy in practical matters.

Roman Stoicism: From Greece to Rome

As Stoicism evolved, it found fertile ground in Rome, where it significantly influenced Roman thought and governance.

Seneca (c. 4 BCE–65 CE)

Life and Major Events: Lucius Annaeus Seneca, known as Seneca the Younger, was a Roman statesman, dramatist, and Stoic philosopher. Born in Corduba (modern-day Córdoba, Spain), Seneca was educated in Rome and became a prominent figure in Roman politics. He served as an advisor to Emperor Nero, a position that brought both influence and peril.

Notable Writings:

• "Letters to Lucilius": A collection of 124 letters offering practical advice on Stoic philosophy and ethical living.

• "On the Shortness of Life": An essay discussing the importance of valuing time and living a virtuous life.

• "On Anger": Explores the destructive nature of anger and ways to control it.

Seneca's works blend Stoic philosophy with practical wisdom, making them highly accessible and enduringly popular.

Epictetus (c. 50–135 CE)

Life and Major Events: Epictetus was born a slave in Phrygia (modern-day Turkey) and was later freed. He studied Stoicism under Musonius Rufus and went on to teach in Rome until the emperor Domitian banished all philosophers. Epictetus then established a school in Nicopolis in Greece.

Notable Writings: Although Epictetus wrote nothing himself, his teachings were recorded by his student Arrian in:

• "Discourses": A series of lectures on Stoic philosophy.

• "Enchiridion" (Handbook): A concise manual of Stoic ethical advice.

Epictetus emphasised the distinction between what is within our control and what is not, a central tenet of Stoic thought.